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18th-Century
Medicine :
The
18th century continued to be marked by unsupported theories. The
German physician and chemist Georg Ernst Stahl believed that the
soul is the vital principle and that it controls organic development;
in contrast, the German physician Friedrich Hoffmann considered
the body a machine and life a mechanical process. These opposing
theories of the vitalists and the mechanists were influential in
18th-century medicine. The British physician William Cullen attributed
disease to the excess or deficiency of nervous energy; and the physician
John Brown of Edinburgh taught that disease was caused by weakness
or inadequate stimulation of the organism. According to his theories,
known as the Brunonian system, stimulation should be increased by
treatment with irritants and large dosages of drugs. In opposition
to this system, the German physician Samuel Hahnemann developed
the system of homeopathy late in the 18th century, which emphasized
small dosages of drugs to cure disease.
Other
unusual medical practices developed toward the end of the 18th century
include phrenology, a theory formulated by the German physician
Franz Joseph Gall, who believed that examination of the skull of
an individual would reveal information about mental functions. The
theory of animal magnetism developed by the Austrian physician Franz
Mesmer was based on the existence of a magnetic force having a powerful
influence on the human body.
Despite
these unorthodox medical practices, the end of the 18th century
was marked by many true medical innovations. British physicians
William Smellie and William Hunter made advances in obstetrics that
established this field as a separate branch of medicine. The British
social reformer John Howard furthered humane treatment for hospital
patients and prison inmates throughout Europe. In 1796 British physician
Edward Jenner introduced vaccination to prevent smallpox. His efforts
both controlled this dreaded disease and also established the science
of immunization.
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